20 Ways A.I. Predicts the World Will End

The following article was obtained through alot.com and written by Ron Winkler.

The End is Nigh: A.I. Forecasts Earth's Impending Catastrophe in 20 Different Scenarios

To help us prepare for the worst, scientists have turned to artificial intelligence to forecast potential catastrophes. In this article, we examine the various scenarios the A.I. has predicted and what we can do to prevent them from becoming a reality.

Gamma-Ray Burst Annihilation

Gamma-ray bursts are some of the most powerful and mysterious events in the universe, capable of releasing more energy in just a few seconds than our Sun will produce over its entire 10-billion-year lifespan. While they occur regularly in distant galaxies, the question remains - could a gamma-ray burst strike our own Milky Way and cause the end of the world as we know it?

Scientists believe that if a gamma-ray burst were to hit the Earth, the intense radiation could destroy the planet's ozone layer, leading to mass extinction of life on Earth within just a few years. However, the good news is that the likelihood of this happening is very low as gamma-ray bursts usually occur far enough away from Earth to have any major impact.

Large Asteroid Apocalypse

The potential impact of an asteroid on Earth is a terrifying possibility that has captured human imagination for years. It's no secret that an asteroid collision could lead to the end of the world, as we know it. And while it may seem like something straight out of a Hollywood movie, the threat is very real.

The good news is that measures are being taken to detect and deflect asteroids that could potentially hit Earth. NASA, for example, has a team dedicated to monitoring the skies and developing plans to prevent or mitigate the damage caused by an asteroid impact. But the possibility of a catastrophic impact remains a real threat, reminding us of the fragile nature of our planet, and the importance of protecting it.

Flood-Basalt Volcanism Event

Did you know that flood-basalt volcanism could potentially cause the end of the world? This natural occurrence happens when massive volumes of lava erupt from the earth's surface, covering an extensive range of land. Some of the largest known flood-basalt volcanisms on the planet occurred millions of years ago, creating the Siberian Traps and the Deccan Traps. But what makes this type of volcanic eruption so concerning is its ability to drastically alter the earth's climate.

Flood-basalt volcanism releases massive quantities of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to global warming and ocean acidification on a massive scale. This type of volcanic eruption could cause widespread extinction of plant and animal life due to rising temperatures and changes in the environment. This, in turn, could directly impact human survival, leading to an apocalyptic event.

Biotechnology Disaster

The rapid advancements in biotechnology may have the potential to cause a global catastrophe. The creation of bioweapons, the accidental release of deadly viruses, and genetic engineering gone wrong are just a few examples of the dangers of biotech disasters. A biotech disaster could lead to the extinction of human life as we know it.

One of the most infamous examples of a biotech disaster is the 1979 anthrax leak in the city of Sverdlovsk, Russia. The leak was caused by a malfunction in a Soviet bioweapons facility, and the spores spread throughout the city, resulting in the deaths of at least 64 people. This incident highlighted the dangers of bioweapons and the importance of strict regulations in the field of biotechnology.

The Collapse of the Cold Vacuum of Space

The collapse of the vacuum is a theoretical possibility that could result in the end of the world as we know it. The vacuum, in this context, refers to the fabric of space-time that exists between subatomic particles. If the vacuum were to collapse, it would cause a chain reaction that would result in the destruction of everything in the universe.

There are a few ways this could happen. One possibility is that the Higgs field, which gives particles their mass, could destabilize and cause a vacuum collapse. Another is that a phase transition could occur that would convert the vacuum into a lower-energy state, triggering a collapse.

Rogue Black Holes Destroying the Galaxy

Rogue black holes are one of the most fascinating and terrifying phenomena in our universe. These massive objects wander through space alone, with no central star to orbit around like the rest of the black holes in our galaxy. And if one of them were to come close to our solar system, it could spell the end of the world.

If a rogue black hole were to pass through our solar system, its immense gravitational pull could disrupt the orbits of all the planets, sending them careening out of control. The Earth could be flung into space or sucked into the black hole itself, causing the total destruction of our planet and any life on it.

Mega-Giant Solar Flares

Giant Solar Flares may seem like just another astronomical phenomenon that we observe from afar, but they pose a significant threat to the very existence of life on Earth. Solar flares are massive eruptions of energy from the Sun's surface, sometimes 10 times the size of our planet. As these flares release a wave of charged particles into space, they can disrupt radio and satellite communication, damage power grids, and even expose astronauts to harmful radiation.

But it's the mega-flares or "superflares" that could cause the end of the world as we know it. These flares are thousands of times more energetic than the most potent solar flare we've ever observed. The intense radiation from a superflare could strip away our ozone layer, destroying our atmosphere and exposing us to lethal amounts of UV radiation.

Earth's Impending Magnetic Pole Reversal

The reversal of the Earth's magnetic field could cause the end of the world as we know it. This is not a new phenomenon, as the Earth's magnetic field has reversed several times throughout its history. However, the last time it happened was around 780,000 years ago, so scientists believe we are due for another one soon.

When the Earth's magnetic field reverses, it weakens and becomes unstable, which can lead to dangerous consequences. For example, the magnetic field protects us from the harmful radiation of the sun and cosmic rays, so if it weakens, we could be exposed to much more radiation than usual. This could cause huge problems for our technological infrastructure, such as satellites and power grids, which rely on a stable magnetic field.

Hostile Robot Takeover

The thought of robots taking over is a common theme in science fiction movies, but it's a very real possibility that we must consider. With the rapid advancements in artificial intelligence and robotics, there's a growing concern that machines could eventually become more intelligent than humans and take control over our world. Many experts in the field have been warning about the risks associated with robotic intelligence, including physicist Stephen Hawking and SpaceX CEO Elon Musk who have both issued warnings about the dangers of AI.

One of the biggest concerns about robots taking over is that they could turn against us and cause the end of the world. Just imagine a future where robots have the power to control our nuclear weapons, transportation systems, and financial institutions. If robots were to gain enough intelligence to surpass humans and decide that we're not necessary, they could easily wipe out all life on Earth.

Unstoppable Global War

Global war has been a looming threat to humanity since the dawn of civilization, and the possibility of it causing the end of the world cannot be ignored. The destructive power of modern warfare has expanded exponentially over the past century, with the development of nuclear weapons and advanced military technology. A full-scale global war could result in catastrophic consequences, such as the widespread destruction of cities, the loss of countless lives, and irreparable damage to the environment.

The impact of a global war extends beyond the immediate destruction and loss of life. It could also lead to a collapse of economies, societal breakdown, and the spread of diseases. The devastation would be felt for generations to come. It is imperative that world leaders take steps to prevent such a catastrophic event from occurring. Diplomacy and peaceful conflict resolution must come before aggression and hostility. The survival of humanity depends on it.

Global Epidemic Wipeout

Global epidemics have the potential to cause the end of the world as we know it. The rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and viruses has made it easier for pandemics to spread and become more deadly. The 1918 flu pandemic, for example, killed an estimated 50 million people worldwide. With the increase in global travel and trade, a new virus or bacteria could spread rapidly across the globe, infecting and killing millions.

One of the biggest risks for a global epidemic comes from the animal kingdom. Many viruses, including SARS, MERS, and COVID-19, originated in animals before jumping to humans. As humans continue to interact with wild animals, the likelihood of a new virus making the jump to humans increases.

The Controversial Global Warming

Global warming is a serious topic that has been gaining attention worldwide over the past decade. It refers to the long-term warming of the earth's atmosphere due to the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane. These gases trap heat and cause the temperature to rise, leading to melting ice caps, rising sea levels, and extreme weather events.

Scientists have warned that global warming could cause the end of the world as we know it. If left unaddressed, it could trigger a series of catastrophic events like floods, droughts, wildfires, and famines. The effects of global warming have already started, with people experiencing extreme heat waves, hurricanes, and wildfires in various parts of the world.

The Irreparable Collapse of the Ecosystem

The collapse of ecosystems could very well mean the end of the world as we know it. The interconnectedness of our planet's diverse ecosystems is crucial to the survival of both human life and the countless other plant and animal species that share our planet with us. The potential for ecosystem collapse is a deeply concerning issue, with many scientists warning that we are already seeing warning signs of this happening all around us.

For instance, a recent study found that nearly half of the world's coral reefs have died in just the last three decades. Rising temperatures, ocean acidification and overfishing are just some of the factors responsible for this huge loss. Another study revealed that nearly one million plant and animal species are on the brink of extinction, largely due to human activity such as habitat destruction and pollution.

Divine Intervention

The idea of divine intervention is a concept that has been debated for centuries. Many people believe that a higher power or deity could intervene in world events and bring about the end of the world. This idea is present in various religious texts and prophecies, including the Book of Revelations in Christianity and the Kalki Avatar in Hinduism.

According to some interpretations, divine intervention could involve natural disasters, wars, or a judgment day where the good are separated from the evil. It is also believed that certain signs or occurrences on Earth could signal the beginning of the end times, such as the arrival of the Antichrist or the appearance of a false prophet.

Particle Accelerator Mishaps

Scientists all over the world are conducting experiments with particle accelerators to discover more about the mysteries of the universe. However, little is known about the potential risks that come with these experiments. One mishap at a particle accelerator could result in catastrophic events that could cause the end of the world as we know it.

Particle accelerators create beams of high-energy particles by accelerating them to near-light speeds. These beams are then directed towards a target to study the particles. However, if there is a malfunction or a mistake made during the experiment, the results could be catastrophic. The high-energy particles could collide with atoms in the air, creating a chain reaction that releases incredible amounts of energy, enough to trigger a butterfly effect that could destroy the world.

Nanotech Gone Rogue

Nanotechnology is the science of manipulating and engineering matter at a molecular level, and it has the potential to greatly enhance our lives. However, some experts warn that nanotechnology could also pose an apocalyptic threat to humanity. The potential for disaster lies in the fact that nanobots, microscopic machines that could be programmed to self-replicate, could eventually consume all matter on earth, including living organisms.

The scenario is known as "gray goo," and it has been a topic of concern since the 1980s. Eric Drexler, the founder of the field of molecular nanotechnology, popularized the idea of gray goo in his book Engines of Creation. In the book, he warned that a rogue nanobot could replicate itself over and over again, until it consumes everything in its path. The result would be a mass of undifferentiated gray goo, which would wipe out all life on earth.

Rampant Environmental Toxins

Environmental toxins are substances that are harmful to living organisms and are found in various aspects of our environment, from the air we breathe to the food we eat. Exposure to these toxins can lead to a wide range of health issues, from respiratory problems to cancer. But what many people don’t know is that the accumulation of environmental toxins could ultimately lead to the end of the world.

Additionally, environmental toxins have also been linked to reduced fertility rates in humans, which could lead to a decrease in the human population. This, combined with the effects on the wider ecosystem, could ultimately have catastrophic consequences for life on Earth. It is essential that we take action to reduce our exposure to environmental toxins and prevent the destruction of our planet.

Is It All Just a Dream?

The idea of someone waking up and realizing that everything they've experienced was just a dream may seem harmless, but if it were to happen on a global scale, it could lead to chaos and possibly even the end of the world. This is because the concept of reality is a shared experience and if suddenly everyone questions its validity, it could lead to widespread panic and distrust.

Interestingly, there are many philosophical and scientific theories that explore the nature of reality and whether what we perceive is actually real or simply a construct of our own minds. Some philosophers argue that reality is subjective and varies from person to person, while scientists suggest that the nature of reality is dependent on the laws of physics and the way our brains interpret sensory information.

Mass Insanity Event

Mass insanity is a worrying phenomenon that could potentially lead to the end of the world. This refers to a scenario where a large portion of the population becomes mentally unstable, leading to chaos and destruction. While mass insanity may seem like a far-fetched concept, there are actually several examples throughout history where it has occurred on a smaller scale. For example, the Salem witch trials of the 1600s, the Rwandan genocide of the 1990s, and the oppressive regime in Germany during World War II are all examples of mass insanity in action.

There are different potential causes of mass insanity, including environmental factors, economic instability, and religious fanaticism. In some cases, a charismatic leader with malicious intent can stoke fear and anger among the population, leading to mass hysteria. Alternatively, a biological or chemical agent could be released into the population, causing widespread mental illness.

Violent Alien Invasion

Alien invasion is a concept that has been popularized in films, books, and television shows for decades. However, the idea of a hostile extraterrestrial species coming to earth could bring about the end of the world. While there is no concrete proof of extraterrestrial life, the possibility of their existence is supported by scientific evidence. If these beings do exist and have the technology to travel to Earth, they may not have the best intentions for humanity.

Interestingly, there have been several reported sightings of UFOs over the years, with some even claiming to have been abducted by aliens. While many of these sightings may be hoaxes or misidentifications, the possibility of extraterrestrial life cannot be ignored. The search for extraterrestrial intelligence continues, and the discovery of such life could have implications beyond our understanding.

Humanity is on the edge of self-destruction in 2024, according to these scientists

The following article was obtained through the website, Stars Insider.

Clock of catastrophe

The Doomsday Clock continues to inch closer to the apocalypse over climate change and fears of nuclear war. The year 2024 has brought yet another dire warning issued by the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. But what is the Doomsday Clock, and how is it read?

To summarize, the clock was developed by scientists in 1947 to track the likelihood of mankind doing something that brings about the end of the world. The development of nuclear weapons and the rapid progression of climate change are two things that have moved the clock's hand closer to midnight, which in this case, marks Armageddon. After the end of the Cold War, the clock was 17 minutes away from midnight, but in recent years, we've gone from counting down the minutes to counting down the seconds. In 2024, the Bulletin left the clock at the same position as last year—90 seconds to midnight.

"Conflict hot spots around the world carry the threat of nuclear escalation, climate change is already causing death and destruction, and disruptive technologies like AI and biological research advance faster than their safeguards," Rachel Bronson, the Bulletin's president and CEO, told Reuters. She clarified that leaving the clock unchanged is "not an indication that the world is stable," considering how disastrously close we already are to midnight. 

Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists

It's been maintained since 1947 by the members of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, itself founded in 1945 by Albert Einstein and University of Chicago scientists who helped develop the first atomic weapons in the Manhattan Project.

A metaphor for threats

The clock serves as a metaphor for hazards to our world from unchecked scientific and technical advances using the imagery of apocalypse (midnight) and the contemporary idiom of nuclear explosion (countdown to zero) to convey threats to humanity and the planet.

Who sets the Doomsday Clock?

The clock is set every year by the Bulletin's Science and Security Board. It's original setting in 1947 was seven minutes to midnight. Since then its timeline has been adjusted to reflect the perceived threat from nuclear weapons, climate change, and disruptive technologies in other domains. To turn the clock back is to revisit some of the most frightening and potentially catastrophic episodes in the history of humanity.

1949: 3 minutes to midnight (23h57)

On August 29, 1949, the Soviet Union carried out its first nuclear test, detonating an atomic bomb, the RDS-1, thus officially starting the nuclear arms race.

1953: 2 minutes to midnight (23h58)

The United States tests its first thermonuclear device, in November 1952 at Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific Proving Ground in the Marshall Islands, as part of Operation Ivy. The USSR responds with a similar test in August 1953. This remained the clock's closest approach to midnight (tied in 2018) until 2020.

1960: 7 minutes to midnight (23h53)

Despite a series of regional conflicts including the Suez Crisis of 1956, the 1958 Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, and the 1958 Lebanon crisis, the clock is put back five minutes in 1960 due in part to increased scientific cooperation and public understanding of the dangers of nuclear weapons.

1963: 12 minutes to midnight (23h48)

The Partial Test Ban Treaty signed by the governments of the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States in Moscow on August 5, 1963 set the clock back to 23h48.

1968: 7 minutes to midnight (23h53)

The clock edges towards midnight again as involvement of the United States in the Vietnam War intensifies. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 and the Six-Day War in 1967 are also determining factors. Meanwhile, France and China join the nuclear arms race.

1969: 10 minutes to midnight (23h50)

Every nation in the world, with the notable exceptions of India, Israel, and Pakistan, signs the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The treaty was negotiated by the Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament, a United Nations-sponsored organization based in Geneva, Switzerland. It was signed on July 1, 1968 and became effective on March 5, 1970.

1972: 12 minutes to midnight (23h48)

A wave of renewed optimism sweeps the world as the United States and the Soviet Union sign the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) and the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty. The clock drops back 120 seconds to 12 minutes before midnight as Richard Nixon and Leonid Brezhnev close the deal in Moscow.

1974: 9 minutes to midnight (23h51)

India's testing of a nuclear device and the stalling of the vital SALT II talks edges the clock forward. A crater marks the site of the first Indian underground nuclear test conducted on May 18, 1974 at Pokhran in the desert state of Rajasthan.

1980: 7 minutes to midnight (23h53)

The Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 sees the US Senate refuse to ratify the SALT II agreement.

1981: 4 minutes to midnight (23h56)

The world is in turmoil: rising tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union contribute to the danger of nuclear annihilation; the US pulls out of the 1980 Olympic Summer Games; the Iran hostage crisis makes world headlines; the Iran-Iraq conflict continues; martial law is declared in Poland; apartheid in South Africa achieves new levels of brutality; and widespread human rights violations are witnessed around the globe.

1984: 3 minutes to midnight (23h57)

Further escalation of the tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union are exemplified with the deployment in Western Europe of Pershing II medium-range ballistic missile and cruise missiles. Meanwhile, the ongoing Soviet–Afghan War only serves to intensify the Cold War. And the Soviet Union announce a boycott of the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles. 

1988: 6 minutes to midnight (23h54)

A thaw in the Cold War sees the clock gain three minutes as Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty in Washington, D.C. on December 8, 1987, effective June 1, 1988.

1990: 10 minutes to midnight (23h50)

The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 1990 and the Iron Curtain, along with the reunification of Germany, sees the beginning of the end of the Cold War.

1991: 17 minutes from midnight (23h43) 

The dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 26, 1991 sees the hands of the Doomsday Clock set back 420 seconds to 17 minutes—to date the farthest from midnight the Doomsday Clock has been since its inception.  

1995: 14 minutes to midnight (23h46)

Concerns mount over post-Soviet Union nuclear proliferation of weapons and brainpower. At the same time, and despite the signing of various treaties, global military spending continues at Cold War levels.

1998: 9 minutes from midnight (23h51)

Both India and Pakistan detonate nuclear weapons in underground tests: Pakistan's Chagai-I project takes place at Ras Koh Hills, while the remote Thar Desert region serves as the location for India's Pokhran-II series of detonations.

2002: 7 minutes from midnight (23h53)

The global nuclear disarmament initiative loses momentum and the United States, concerned about the possibility of a nuclear terrorist attack due to the amount of weapon-grade nuclear materials that are unsecured and unaccounted for worldwide, rejects a series of rams controls and treaties.

2007: 5 minutes to midnight (23h55)

The clock edges forward after North Korea tests a nuclear weapon in 2006. At the same time, Iran's nuclear ambitions become cause for concern. And in a sign of the times, after assessing the dangers posed to civilization, climate change is added to the prospect of nuclear annihilation as the greatest threats to humanity.

2010: 6 minutes to midnight (23h54)

The Clock edges back 60 seconds after the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen results in the developing and industrialized countries agreeing to take responsibility for carbon emissions and to limit global temperature rise to 2°C (35.6°F).

2012: 5 minutes to midnight (23h55) 

The lack of global political will to address urgent global climate change issues nudges the clock another minute towards midnight. Of equal concern are nuclear weapons stockpiles, the potential for regional nuclear conflict, and nuclear power safety.

2015: 3 minutes to midnight (23h57)

The apparent inability of governments around the world to tackle global climate change, plus the modernization of nuclear weapons in the United States and Russia, and the problem of nuclear waste, takes another 120 seconds off the clock.

2017: 2.5 minutes to midnight (23h57.30)

US President Donald Trump's alarmist rhetoric over nuclear weapons, the threat of a renewed arms race between the US and Russia, and his administration's refusal to accept scientific consensus over climate change, is enough to shave off another 90 seconds.

2018: 2 minutes to midnight (23h58)

The clock matches its 1958 2-minute warning after the US withdraws from the 2015 Paris Agreement.

2019: 2 minutes to midnight (23h58)

In 2019, the Doomsday Clock remained at 2 minutes to midnight due to unresolved issues involving climate change and because of the threat posed by information warfare such as misuse of AI and synthetic biology, and cyberwarfare.

2020: 100 seconds to midnight (23h58.2)

In 2020, the unit of time was announced in seconds (100) to emphasize "the most dangerous situation that humanity has ever faced," according to the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.

2021/2022: 100 seconds to midnight

In 2021 and 2022, the Bulletin reaffirmed the "100 seconds to midnight" time setting, reiterating the failure of world leaders to deal with the increased threats of nuclear war along with the continued neglect of climate change.

2023: 90 seconds to midnight (23h58.5)

In 2023, the clock was moved 10 seconds closer to midnight, leaving us just 90 seconds away from doomsday. This was in response to Russia's attack on Ukraine and the imminent threat of nuclear war. “We are sending a message that the situation is becoming more urgent,” said Rachel Bronson, President of the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists. "Crises are more likely to happen and have broader consequences and longer standing effects.” Other threats to humanity mentioned included "nuclear weapon proliferation in China, Iran increasing its uranium enrichment, missile tests in North Korea, future pandemics from animal diseases, pathogens from lab mistakes, “disruptive technologies,” and worsening climate change."

What do Mormons believe?

The following article was obtained through CNN and written by A. J. Willingham.

Mormonism is a religion practiced by millions around the world. And yet, many who are unfamiliar with it sometimes rely on vague stereotypes and pop culture references to define it. 

In reality, it’s a theologically complex religion with an unusual history. 

Here, we answer some of the most common questions about Mormonism, with context from religious experts and Mormon literature.

What do Mormons believe?

Mormons believe in a Christian view of God and Jesus. The Bible and the Book of Mormon are the two most important sources for the Mormon faith. The Book of Mormon is described by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as “a collection of writings from ancient Christians who traveled from Jerusalem to the Americas during biblical times,” transcribed by the church’s founder Joseph Smith (pictured above), who is considered by believers to be a prophet. This marks one of the biggest differences between Mormonism and other Christian religions.

Are Mormons Christians?

Several other details of Mormon history and belief also diverge from most Christian understandings. (These are described below in the section “What does the Book of Mormon say?”)

Mormonism does define itself as a type of Christianity. However, the answer isn’t that simple.

“Here’s the problem. Who decides what Christianity is?” says Matthew Bowman, associate professor of religion and history and Howard W. Hunter Chair of Mormon Studies at Claremont Graduate University in California.

“Mormons reject trinitarianism – the idea that God the Father, Jesus the Son and the Holy Spirit are the same entity. This is a central tenet of mainline Christianity that was decided in early Christian councils. So to a lot of Christians, believers in Mormonism are not Christian. It is an internal debate.”

However, trinitarian beliefs can vary among Mormon denominations. While the LDS Church, the largest denomination of Mormonism, states a belief that “God the Father, Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost are one in will and purpose but are not literally the same being or substance,” the Community of Christ, a smaller denomination, defines the trinity as “God who is a community of three persons,” a view that more aligns with other Christian traditions.

What’s the difference between Mormonism and Latter-day Saints?

Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the largest Mormon denomination, have requested people stop referring to church members as “Mormons.” However, Bowman says there is a distinct relationship between the two.

“Mormonism is a religious tradition with a number of denominations within it, but to equate the two erases these multiple other groups,” Bowman says. “There are three fairly large Mormon churches: The LDS based in Salt Lake City, the Fundamentalist Church of (Jesus Christ of) Latter-day Saints, which is the group associated with polygamy, and the Community of Christ. They are the Mormons who did not go west and settle in Utah, and they are quite different theologically.”

So, logically, all followers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints are technically Mormons. But not all Mormons are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

How did Mormonism begin?

The origins of Mormonism set it apart from other Christian traditions. The religion was founded by Joseph Smith in the 1820s in Palmira, a small town in upstate New York.

Mormons believe Smith, confused about what denomination of Christianity to follow, received a vision from an angel named Moroni, who led Smith to a box containing a book inscribed on gold plates. The book was said to be written by ancient prophets who lived in the Americas, and Moroni asked Smith to translate the ancient text into English.

In the introduction to the Book of Mormon, Smith describes the text as “the most correct of any book on earth, and the keystone of our religion, and a man would get nearer to God by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book.” It was first published in English in 1830. In these formative years, Smith and some close associates also claimed to have been visited by other important biblical figures like John the Baptist and three apostles of Jesus, according to the LDS Church website. With this small group, Smith formed the first Mormon church.

What does the Book of Mormon say?

The Book of Mormon assumes an alternative history to other Christian texts. Most notably, the text claims a strong presence of ancient Christianity and pre-Christianity in what is now the United States. According to the Book of Mormon, Jesus appeared in the Americas after his crucifixion in 33 AD and preached to a group of Nephites, descendants of ancient Israelites who traveled to the continent around 600 BC. One of these Nephites was the prophet Mormon, who would eventually write part of the Book of Mormon, later transcribed by Joseph Smith.

Other biblical details are also said to have existed in the Americas. The Garden of Eden, for instance, is widely assumed in the Mormon faith to have existed somewhere in Missouri.

Due to this assumed Christian heritage in the Americas, Joseph Smith believed Native Americans were also descendants of ancient Israelites.

“Smith and his early followers had a belief that Native Americans should be honored,” says Bowman. “But then there was frustration when, as Mormonism moved west, Native Americans were not receptive to that.”

How did Mormonism come to be associated with Salt Lake City?

Though the Mormon religion began in New York, it quickly spread west, through Ohio and Illinois and later to the contested frontier of Utah. Missionaries, who immediately became an important part of the church, were one reason for the expansion. The other was that Smith, with his visions and controversial ideas, became increasingly unpopular outside his Mormon community and chose to relocate several times.

“Smith claimed that since Abraham and Isaac and Joseph and all of these Biblical patriarchs are polygamists, that’s the biblical order of things,” says Bowman. “At the very least, he knew that people wouldn’t like this, and so he starts doing it secretly and ends up marrying somewhere between 30 and 35 women.”

This practice sowed mistrust not only among non-Mormons, but among some of Smith’s closest associates.

In 1844, Smith and his brother Hyrum were arrested in Illinois and charged with treason after attempting to quash public discussion of polygamy and using a local militia. (Smith had also announced his intention to run for president of the United States earlier in the year, attracting even more attention.) A mob broke into the prison and killed the brothers before they could be tried.

After Smith’s death, the church was taken over by Brigham Young, who continued the push westward.

“(Young) was very convinced that (Mormons) were going to have the flee the US,” says Bowman. “He consulted with a lot of explorers and mapmakers, and decided on the Salt Lake Valley. At the time, it was still part of Mexico because of the Mexican-American war. There were Indigenous people there, but no Mexican or American citizens.”

By 1877, a majority of Mormons in the US settled in the Salt Lake Valley. Groups that split off further east became what are now Mormon denominations outside of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

Why is very little known about Mormon customs?

“This goes back to Joseph Smith and the early church,” says Bowman. “In his ideal church, everyone would live in the same city, all the property would be owned by the church and everyone would get what they needed from the church.”

Bowman says Brigham Young strove to continue this tradition when the church settled in Salt Lake City, encouraging followers to interact only with Mormon-led groups and businesses.

Today, a lot of Mormon church life remains a mystery to outsiders, and that is by design.

“What goes on inside their temples, which are their main places of worship, is considered sacred, and you don’t talk about it in public,” Bowman says.

He adds that, in the LDS Church, only members may enter the temple.

“Even then, it’s only some members. Many members must get a recommendation to attend.”

Is missionary work a big part of Mormonism?

“Missionary work has been part of the church since the very beginning,” says Bowman, noting that missionary work is part of what initially led the early Mormon church to expand. “In Mormonism, the leadership of the church will extend a call for you to go on a mission. That is what distinguishes it from other Christian churches. There, it is personal and voluntary. And while it is not technically required in the Mormon church, it’s still a cultural expectation.”

According to the LDS Church, there are about 53,000 full-time missionaries around the world, in more than 400 locations. These missionaries are typically young men, who undertake missionary duties for two years, and young women, who undertake missionary duties for 18 months.

The countries with the largest number of LDS-aligned Mormons, after the US, are Mexico, Brazil and the Philippines, according to LDS statistics.

Do Mormons really practice polygamy?

The practice of polygamy in the early Mormon church was highly controversial. The spread of Mormonism even led to legal battles with the US government, culminating in the federal criminalization of polygamy in 1882.

However, polygamy is not widely practiced among Mormons today.

“The Church does not authorize and sternly prohibits polygamy today,” reads an LDS Church explanation of the subject. “As early as 1890, the practice of polygamy came to an end when Church President Wilford Woodruff was inspired by God to issue a declaration.”

The disavowal of polygamy resulted in a schism. The group that refused to stop the practice of polygamy became the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Today, the FLDS is an extremely controversial group whose most prominent leaders have been convicted of serious crimes. Many members of other Mormon churches do not want their religion associated with the FLDS.

What is Mormonism’s view on social issues?

Public perception of Mormonism often focuses on the social and cultural values of its followers. It is true that Mormonism teaches the abstinence of things like alcohol, coffee and premarital sex. It is also true that the LDS Church does not fully affirm LGBTQ believers or recognize same sex marriage.

The LDS Church’s official policies describe their stance on homosexuality:

"If members feel same-sex attraction and are striving to live the law of chastity, leaders support and encourage them in their resolve. These members may receive Church callings, have temple recommends, and receive temple ordinances if they are worthy. Male Church members may receive and exercise the priesthood.”

In another section, same-sex marriage and intimacy is condemned:

“Only a man and a woman who are legally and lawfully wedded as husband and wife should have sexual relations. Any other sexual relations, including those between persons of the same sex, are sinful and undermine the divinely created institution of the family.”

Mormonism has also been heavily criticized for its history of racial prejudice. Both Joseph Smith and Brigham Young advanced a theological idea that Black people bore the “curse of Cain,” relating them to the Old Testament story of the covetous, murderous brother.

“The Pearl of Great Price,” an important collection of Mormon teachings written by Smith, repeatedly describes the descendants of Cain as having dark skin. An entry in the chapter of Moses reads:

“And Enoch also beheld the residue of the people which were the sons of Adam; and they were a mixture of all the seed of Adam save it was the seed of Cain, for the seed of Cain were black, and had not place among them.”

Smith, Young and subsequent leaders of the Mormon church repeatedly made disparaging and racist comments about Black people that sometimes also served as commentary on justice movements like abolitionism.

“Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin,” Young wrote in 1859. “Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants;’ and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree.”

Because of these racist beliefs, Black men were barred from LDS church priesthood from the 1850s until 1978.

Since the disavowal of its founders’ views on race, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints has occasionally made statements condemning racism. Its church policies also clarify this stance.

“Today, the Church disavows the theories advanced in the past that black skin is a sign of divine disfavor or curse, or that it reflects unrighteous actions in a premortal life; that mixed-race marriages are a sin; or that blacks or people of any other race or ethnicity are inferior in any way to anyone else,” a current LDS-issued manual reads. “Church leaders today unequivocally condemn all racism, past and present, in any form.”

The Judges of Israel

The 15 Judges in the Bible were renowned leaders of their time. They were mostly skillful administrators, as well as successful military leaders, that delivered their tribes from its enemies. For over 325 years these Judges ran their country and led the people with wisdom, settled disputes and presided over judicial matters involving and affecting the people. During ancient times, justice was a central theme that dictated the traditions of the Law and how they should be put into practice. All three Abrahamic religions agree on this theme even unto our modern times. These faithful people presided over the Israelites before the Kings of Israel made their entrance into the Bible. The following Judges are listed in most of the Abrahamic Bibles... 

1 - Othniel

• From the Tribe of Judah who ruled between 1373-1334 B.C.
• Defeated the Mesopotamians and incurred 40 years of peace.
• Othniel was the first warrior-judge of Israel, who had captured the town of Debir from the Canaanites. He delivered Israel from the 8-year oppression of the Mesopotamian king, Cushan-Rishathaim and was known as a "Brave Judge".
• Reference: Judges 1:9-21; 3:15:13-17; 1 Chronicles 4:13.

2 - Ehud

• From the Tribe of Benjamin who ruled between 1316-1237 B.C.
• Defeated the Moabites and incurred 80 years of peace.
• Ehud delivered Israel from the domination of King Eglon of Moab by skillfully killing his enemy. Ehud was known as a "crafty operator". It is interesting to note that he was described as being left-handed.
• Reference: Judges 3:13-30

3 - Shamgar

• Which tribe Shamgar descended from is unknown, but his reign is calculated as 1262-1247 B.C.
• Defeated the Philistines, incurred peace for an unknown number of years.
• There are no references to the length of his Shamgar's reign nor a conclusion of his character. The enemy king he defeated is not named. But it is recorded that he slayed 600 Philistines with an oxgoad (axe). Shamgar was known as a "Fearless Judge".
• Reference: Judges 3:31; 5:6

4 - Deborah

• From the Tribe of Ephraim who ruled between 1237-1198 B.C.
• Defeated the Canaanites and incurred 40 years of peace.
• Deborah delivered Israel from King Jabin by defeating Sisera, the commander of Jabin's army, with the help of Barak (from the Tribe of Naphtali). Deborah was classified as a prophet, judge and warrior. She was known as a "Supportive Judge".
• Reference: Judges 4 and 5

5 - Gideon

• From the Tribe of Manasseh who ruled between 1191-1151 B.C.
• Defeated the Midianites and incurred 40 years of peace.
• Gideon delivered Israel from oppression with an army of only 300 men. Gideon was hesitant to follow the Israelite God's instructions and demanded a 'sign'. Because of this, God reduced his army from 32,000 to 300. However, Gideon was known as a "Valiant Judge".
• Reference: Judges 6 and 7

6 - Abimelech

• From the Tribe of Manasseh who ruled for three years.
• Noted for his attacks on Shechem and declaring himself a king.
• One of the 70 children of Gideon (the son of a concubine). He killed all his brothers and claimed the leadership. He was a tyrant who was eventually assassinated by a woman at Thebaz, a city that Abimelech was trying to overtake. He was considered an "evil judge".
• Reference: Judges 8:31 and 9

7 - Tola

• From the Tribe of Issachar who ruled between 1149-1126 B.C.
• It is unknown which enemy Tola defeated, but it is inferred it was the Philistines. He incurred 23 years of peace.
• Not much information is recorded about Tola's judgeship other than it followed a 3-year repressive and tyrannical rule of an unnamed Philistine king (referred to as the Abimelech).
• Reference: Judges 10:1-2

8 - Jair the Gileadite

• From the Tribe of Manasseh who ruled from 1126-1105 B.C.
• It is unknown which enemy Jair defeated, but he incurred 22 years of peace.
• While there is not a lot of enlightenment about this Judge, his name means, "he enlightens". Jair was a man of great wealth and power, whose sons ruled over 30 cities in Gilead. Jair was killed in battle.  After his death there were 18 years of infidelity to the God of the Israelites and oppression at the hands of their Philistine and Ammonite neighbors.
• Reference: Judges 10:3-5

9 - Jephthah the Gileadite

• From the Tribe of Manasseh who ruled between 1087-1081 B.C.
• Defeated the Ammonites and incurred 6 years of peace.
• Jephthah refused to give up land to the Ammonite king, thrashing 20 Ammonite cities. But he could be considered a "conniving judge" because he only agreed to lead a battle on the Ammonites if a higher position (such as a Judge) was granted to him. He also made an irrational vow to attain that position, but it explicitly cost him the life of his only daughter.
• Reference: Judges 11 and 12

10 - Ibzan the Bethlehemite

• From the Tribe of Judah who ruled from 1081-1075.
• Defeated an unknown enemy and incurred 7 years of peace.
• Not much is known about Ibzan other than he came from Bethlehem.  His greatest accomplishment was creating alliances with other Israelites by arranging marriages for his children outside of his tribe clan. Ibzan could have been considered as an "influential judge".
• Reference: Judges 12:8-10

11 - Elon

• From the Tribe of Zebulon who ruled between 1075-1065 B.C.
• There was no known enemy he defeated, but Elon continued 10 more years of peace.
• Very little is known about Elon, but his tribe, length of reign and his death are recorded in the scriptures. There is no written record about any known enemies or military campaigns, but his name meant, "strong".
• Reference: Judges 12:11-12

12 - Abdon the Pirathonite

• From the Tribe of Ephraim and ruled between 1065-1058 B.C.
• There was no known enemy he defeated, but Abdon continued 8 more years of peace.
• Scholars proclaim that Abdon restored order in Israel after the civil war between the Gileadites and Ephraimites. There is not a lot of personal information found on this ancient judge other than he was the son of Hillel.
• Reference: Judges 12:13-15

13 - Samson the Nazirite

• From the Tribe of Dan who ruled between 1069-1049 B.C.
• Defeated the Philistines and incurred 20 years of peace.
• A Nazirite was consecrated that no razor should come upon the head, and this gave Samson his strength. He lost his strength when Delilah cut his hair but calling upon the Lord to help regain his strength, Samson was able to defeat over 3,000 Philistines by bringing down the Temple of Dagon, therefore killing himself in the process. He was known as the "Strong and Weak Judge".
• Reference: Judges 13 and 16:31

14 - Eli the Priest

• Eli descended from Itamar, a son of Aaron (brother of Moses). He ruled in the 11th century B.C.
• The Philistines defeated Eli, killing all his sons who was in charge of the Ark of the Covenant, which the Philistines confiscated from the Israelites. Eli ruled Israel for 40 years. 
• Eli is best remembered for his establishment of a rival shrine at Shiloh, which the Samaritans attributed the schism between their communities. Eli was also instrumental in preparing Samuel for his future role as a judge.
• Reference: Book of 1Samuel

15 - Samuel the Nazirite

• From the Tribe of Korah (Moses' cousin) who ruled in the 11th century B.C.
• Samuel eventually defeated the Philistines after 20 years of oppression.
• Samuel was a key figure in keeping the Israelites' religious heritage and identity alive during Israel's defeat under Eli and the occupation by the Philistines, who returned the Ark of the Covenant to the Israelites seven months later when many calamities befell them. Samuel was technically the last Judge of the Israelites. He is responsible for paving the way for the first two Kings of Israel (Saul & David) to take charge of the people.
• Reference: Books of 1 & 2 Samuel

Related Articles:

Hebrew Bible judges - Wikipedia

Judges of the Old Testament (agapebiblestudy.com)

Era of the Judges (jewishhistory.org)

Nostradamus 2024: Civil War, Bloodshed And The End Of The World

The following article was obtained through the website, Astroframe.

Nostradamus   is   famous   for   his   incredibly accurate  predictions  spanning  centuries. His forecasts are like ancient prophecies, hinting at massive global shifts.  If  you're  curious  about what he foresaw for 2024, you're in for a treat! Get   ready   to   uncover   some   mind-boggling events that are set to rock the world and change our lives forever. Buckle up, because we're about to dive into some mind-blowing predictions for 2024.

Nostradamus' predictions 2024 - 8 Things he forecasts

We hate to break it to you, but Nostradamus' predictions for 2024 aren't very positive and are indeed very scary... 

1. Civil war in the USA

It's been several years since the United States has appeared more divided than ever. In 2024, the year of presidential elections, the country is at risk of facing unprecedented instability. As debate seems impossible and violence escalates, the specter of a civil war could become a reality in 2024.

2. China's growing influence

Already in 2023, China made headlines with its geopolitical role. It appears that this quest for power and broader international collaborations continues into 2024.

3. A nuclear explosion

'For forty years, the rainbow will not appear; For forty years, it will be seen every day: The dry earth will grow drier, And great floods when it is seen.' ☠️

According to Nostradamus' predictions for 2024, a devastating nuclear explosion will cause climatic changes and significant depopulation in many European countries. This is alarming given the current global situation.

4. Escalation of climate change

More than just an intensification, Nostradamus speaks of irreversible climate changes in 2024. Temperatures keep rising, and he even mentions fish boiling in the sea and changes in humanity that won't leave traces for nearly a thousand years.

5. The end of the world

The astrologer predicted a 'celestial fire on the royal building.' This indicates a radical transformation in the world and could potentially put an end to painful things for all of us.

6. Intensification of the migration crisis

Wars and the ravages of climate change will undoubtedly intensify the migration crisis. Still, according to Nostradamus, terrorist attacks will also contribute to the surge in the number of migrants.

7. A new world order

A 'new world order' will be established. It should involve a man and a woman joining forces. The downside is that the coalition won't last very long.

8. Assassination of a world leader and the rise of another

2024 might mark the end of an important world leader. This leader could be assassinated, paving the way for peace. On the other hand, this year could witness the emergence of a great leader in Europe. A charismatic figure representing a glimmer of hope for many peoples. However, true peace would only come in 2043... A little more patience will be needed.

Nostradamus and Queen Elizabeth II - Did he predict her death? 👑

Yes, he did! According to 'The Complete Prophecies for the Future' book in which his visions were all prescribed, Nostradamus successfully predicted that Queen Elizabeth II would die around 2022, at the age of approximately 96! He also went on to reveal that Harry would be the one to take the throne after the abdication of Charles III, meaning Queen Elizabeth's death will cause major changes in the monarchy. The reason for Charles' future abdication would be, according to the predictions, his advanced age. As for William, the predictions evoke an "incapacity" that would send his brother on the throne until the young George is old enough to be king.

Who is Nostradamus?

His real name was Michael de Nôtre-Dame, and he was a French doctor and astrologer. He contributed his knowledge during the plague, famous for his prophecies in which he anticipated the future of humanity until the end of the world. Interestingly enough, he predicted the end of the world to come about in the year, 2024. He perhaps most famously also predicted the attack on the Twin Towers. For centuries and right up until nowadays, his prophecies are studied around the world and announce the events that are to come. 

Why is 2024 a crucial year for Nostradamus?

Over the years, his predictions have often been associated with important events that have occurred in the world. Indeed, many people believe that Nostradamus has predicted the future and that his predictions have proven to be accurate. According to some of his prophecies, 2024 will be a very important year. In fact, this year, he even predicted the end of the world, however, it should be noted that he didn’t specify an exact date.

British Nostradamus; Craig Hamilton-Parker announces WWIII 🪖

Over the years, Craig Hamilton-Parker has earned the title of the British Nostradamus thanks to his correct predictions regarding the Covid-19 pandemic, the war in Ukraine and the passing of Queen Elizabeth II. When it comes to 2024, the British Nostradamus believes that an accident will trigger the beginning of World War III . He predicts that the bloodshed will begin in Taiwan because of the conflicts with China. In fact, he believes that the incidents will be triggered by the collision of two planes or submarines. He goes on to say, "I think we're going to get an accidental conflict in some respects because we're going to have something like a freak collision or incident". He adds that the incident will be so serious and even more so than the war in Ukraine. Hamilton-Parker also foresees Russia siding with China and therefore creating more conflict within the world.

Source: https://www.marca.com/en/lifestyle/news/2023/03/14/64104b9ae2704eca058b4580.html

Bible? No Thanks. 16 Reasons Why So Many Americans Have Stopped Going to Church

The following article was obtained through the website, A Piece of Travel, and written by Charlotte G. Jo.

According to a Statista study, more Americans never go to church than there are Americans who do so every week. Depending on your point of view, that may be a reason to celebrate or fear for fellow citizens.

Breaking Down the Numbers

Of the Americans Statista surveyed, 31% never attend church or synagogue, and 20% attend church or synagogue every week. But an even more startling comparison is the number of people who seldomly go to church versus those who go almost every week; 26% seldomly attend church, whereas almost 10% attend every week. Americans turned to the internet to discuss why they believe people have stopped attending church.

1: Choice

Over 640 people agreed with the simple reason one commenter gave for why many Americans no longer attend church: “More and more people have been given the choice to partake in it or not.” They believe this will ultimately end religion as we know it.

2: In Adults We Trust

An adult reflects on their younger self who remembers being taught “‘This is how you spell ‘this'” and “‘1 + 1 is 2” as facts. So, naturally, they were inclined to believe their parents when they told them about God. However, after meeting a Jewish person when they were five years old, their parents “explained there were dozens of religions and nobody knew which one was ‘real.'” From that point on, the person remembers not believing in religion as a whole.

3: The Internet

For better or worse, the internet brings knowledge into a person’s home that previous, more religious generations never had access to. One commenter believes that the internet is to thank for many people in religious cults “waking up” and seeing what their religion really believes. They cite Mormons as a classic example of people leaving the church due to what they learned on the internet.

4: In the News

The news hasn’t been flattering to many churches in recent years, with the Catholic church being among the most notorious. From priests to Sunday school teachers, the number of wrongdoings to children and the coverups to allow such atrocities to continue to happen has become too much for some Americans. Faith in the church has gone out the stained glass window for them.

5: Corrupt Mini Government

“I don’t go to church because churches are completely corrupt,” says one commenter.” They believe in God, but they say they don’t need a “human-run organization” getting in the way of their faith. The church sheltering their employees and members from crime, operating tax-free, and influencing politics are reasons they cite for not attending church.

6: Hypocrisy Awakening

In the eyes of one non-churchgoer, Americans are no longer going to church because “they can see the hypocrisy.” They believe churches “hoard wealth just like businesses and no longer contribute to their communities.”

7: Two Faces

According to one commenter, Americans are waking up to the inconsistencies in church messaging. Despite most churchgoers being average, good people (like being nice and not stealing or murdering anyone), the church still demonizes them, making them feel like they’re huge sinners.

8: Reality Check

So, why are Americans leaving the church? If you ask one person with a knack for visuals, it’s “because going to church makes people Christians as much as standing in a garage makes people a car.”

9: Study Up

Making the choice to educate oneself about religion outside of the resources churches offer is a surefire reason people are leaving the church, according to someone who’s walked in those shoes. “I studied religions and concluded all were based on myths, legends, or misinterpretations of what people saw.” At the end of the day, this person believes that there’s probably something beyond what we see, saying, “We’re only human.”

10: Inflation

High inflation in the US is making it challenging for many churchgoers to afford the 10% donation that many pastors and priests expect. “It just makes people not want to go,” they said. Making things worse? Religious leaders often relentlessly repeat that churchgoers should give 10% of their salaries to the church.

11: Protecting Family

A parent who was raised in the church watched their extended family disown their cousin for coming out. Fast forward to when their oldest son came out to them, and they said there was no way they’d ostracize their child in the name of the church’s teachings. The parent has harsh feelings towards the church, believing people use it to justify bad behavior. “I’m glad they’re suffering a drop in attendance.”

12: Total Scam

Americans are waking up to what organized religion as a whole is, which is a scam in the eyes of one commenter. They describe the church as pushing “propaganda to discover and brainwash people,” all while receiving monetary gains from their attendance.

13: Getting It Elsewhere

“Churches used to offer moral and ethical leadership, but they’ve given that up in favor of political advocacy,” observes a former churchgoer. They say they’ve stopped attending church because they can find moral and ethical leadership guidance “almost anywhere and everywhere without getting up early to go to church.”

14: Protect Children

To one parent, stopping church attendance was the obvious choice. “We stopped going to church because we have small children now and want to protect them.” Their other two reasons were also head-turners. “We also don’t want to pray to Donald Trump, and we found out a few years ago that our lead pastor makes about $175k/year and always asks us for more.”

15: It’s Simple

In the eyes of one person, the answer about why many Americans no longer go to church is more obvious than many make it seem. Some people have stopped believing in God. Plain and simple.

16: Poking Into Politics

“The merging of Christianity and republicanism is a huge turnoff,” says a commenter who can understand why Americans who lean Democrat have stopped attending church.

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Note: Forty million Americans have stopped attending church in the past 25 years. That's something like 12 percent of the population, and it represents the largest concentrated change in church attendance in American history. (Source: The Atlantic)

Related Articles:     

U.S. Church Attendance Still Lower Than Pre-Pandemic

Losing their religion: why US churches are on the decline

WHY I DON'T GO TO CHURCH ANYMORE | PASTOR PHIL JOHNSON

The Misunderstood Reasons Millions of Americans Stopped Going to Church