John of Patmos was the biblical author of the
Book of Revelation and purportedly wrote the final tome of the
Christian Bible while in exile on the Greek island of
Patmos. The island of Patmos, in the Aegean Sea, was a remote penal colony for prisoners of Rome during the 1st century A.D. The island contained a quarry mine (for the
Roman Empire) that was worked by many political and religious prisoners, as well as various slaves. According to most scholars, John was held prisoner on this harsh, desert island for his incessant preaching about Jesus [Christ]. However, the actual identity of John is questioned and debated by the modern biblical theologians. The following theories on John's identity have led to possibly three (3) different men:
John the Apostle,
John the Elder, and
John the Patmos Prisoner.
John the Apostle:
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| Depiction of John the Apostle |
The most common theory among the ancient scholars reveal that John the Apostle and John of Patmos were the same man. John the Apostle (also referred to as
John the Evangelist and the
Beloved Disciple) was one of the
Twelve Disciples of Jesus according to the Christian Bible and the only Apostle to reach old age. Besides, Judas Iscariot (who killed himself after betraying Jesus), the other disciples of Jesus were thought to have been martyred as young men. John the Apostle was about 92 years old when he wrote the Revelation and around 94 years old when he died (c/6 A.D.-c/100 A.D.).
For many centuries the Church Fathers have generally associated John the Apostle with being the author of five (5) books in the New Testament: the Gospel of John, the three (3) Epistles of John, and the Book of Revelation. These particular books in the New Testament
are referred to as the "Johannine Literature". The Gospel according to John, most likely written decades after the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke were completed, differ considerably from the other three gospels written by these Disciples of Jesus. According to the ancient scholars, the bishops of Asia Minor requested John to write his gospel to deal with the heresy of the Ebionites, who proclaimed that Jesus did not exist before Mary (mother of Jesus). This could possibly explain the differences between the first three gospels and the mysterious and unique writing style of John the Apostle. Justin Martyr, an early 2nd century writer, was the first to equate the author of Revelation with John the Apostle. This theory was shared by Irenaeus, Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul [then part of the Roman Empire], who also lived during the 2nd century and quoted as saying:
“Now the Gospels, in which Christ is enthroned, are like these. For that according to John expounds his princely and mighty and glorious birth from the Father, saying, 'In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God,' and, 'All things were made by him, and without him nothing was nothing made' . Therefore this Gospel is deserving of all confidence, for such indeed is his person.”
However, around 600 A.D., Sophronius of Jerusalem insisted that the "two epistles bearing his name... are considered by some to be the work of a certain John the Elder".
John the Elder:
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| Depiction of John the Elder |
Some theologians of the ancient era believe John the Elder of
Ephesus (also known as
John the Presbyter) was the actual author of the Gospel of John as well as the first and second Epistle of John. Such a conclusion has been forthcoming due to the reference of "the Beloved Disciple" mentioned in
John 19:35,
21:24 which a few ancient writers associated with John the Apostle. The reference to "the elder" in the second and third Epistle of John gives another clue that John the Elder and John the Apostle were separate men. Yet other scholars believe that John the Apostle wished to make himself distinctly known from
John the Baptist, whom he spoke about in
John 1:6-36 and presented an entirely different persona to his own name.
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Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis, wrote extensively in the 2nd century and purportedly produced five (5) books which included the
Interpretations of the Sayings of the Lord. Unfortunately, his writings have been lost to antiquity except for a few surviving fragments. His writings included miraculous stories about the Apostles, as well as recounting unknown teachings of Jesus. He wrote extensively about the Christian Oral Tradition, in which he quoted various scriptures from the New Testament.
While Papias' writings were lost, the few surviving fragments were later quoted with approval by Irenaeus of Gaul in Against Heresies and even later by a critical Eusebius of Caesarea in Ecclesiastical History, which are the earliest surviving histories of the early Church. Papias is quoted as saying:
"I will not hesitate to add also for you to my interpretations what I formerly learned with care from the Presbyters and have carefully stored in memory, giving assurance of its truth. For I did not take pleasure as the many do in those who speak much, but in those who teach what is true, nor in those who relate foreign precepts, but in those who relate the precepts which were given by the Lord to the faith and came down from the Truth itself."
The evidence from Papias could be interpreted that the Gospel of John was written by another John [who was not the Apostle] and this theory is backed by a minority of
early church fathers, such as Jerome, who also questioned the authorship of 2nd and 3rd John. The controversy of John the Apostle and John the Elder being different men leads us to the conclusion that it is completely unknown who actually penned the gospel, epistles and Revelation. One other theory that is contributed to the author of Revelation leads us to John the Patmos Prisoner.
John the Patmos Prisoner:
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| Depiction of John of Patmos |
John of Patmos was perceived as an anonymous author by a few select scholars of the modern era, such as
Elaine Pagels. Pseudonymity (writing under a false name) was widely practiced by authors and writers, during this ancient time period, who lacked authority and social standing. Some borrowed the names of authentic eyewitnesses to the life and times of Jesus [Christ] to create an air of credibility for their own works.
The author of Revelation (also referred to as "
the Apocalypse") identifies himself only as "John" and was residing on Patmos when he received his visions from a Superior Power.
"The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified it by his angel unto his servant John: 2 Who bare record of the word of God, and of the testimony of Jesus Christ, and of all things that he saw." - Revelation 1:1-2
Some modern scholars attest the style and theology of Revelation is too different from the Gospel of John for it to have been penned by the same author. In addition, John of Patmos is no longer accepted by the select few as the author of John's Gospel, which most scholars believe was written by John the Apostle. Then there are other theologians of biblical studies that claim the Gospel of John was written by an anonymous author and to distinguish the true authorship of Revelation, both from John the Apostle and the pseudonymous writer of John's Gospel, is now commonly referred to as "John of Patmos".
For nearly 2,000 years the Book of Revelation was credited to John the Apostle, yet some modern theologists challenge the mystery that surrounds the simple name of "John" in search of answers. Their conclusions have led them to believe that "John of Patmos" was indeed an entirely different person from the famed Disciple of Jesus, also known as John.
The Controversy Continues:
Not only is the Book of Revelation the most controversial book in the Christian Bible, the authorship of the this particular tome continues to be debated among the scholars of today. In his book, "
Egyptian Origen of the Book of Revelation",
John H. C. Pippy summed it up the best:
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| Depiction of a Johannine theologian |
"Disagreements on authorship of the Book of Revelation were an important part of the early debates and continue to be in modern times. Irenaeus (c180 CE), for example, assumed that the author was John the Divine who wrote the Gospel and the letters of John. Some, like Dionysius of Alexandria (c200-265 CE), questioned this identification because of the differences in thought, style and language and suggested that there may have been two writers named "John" in Ephesus - as hinted by Papias (c80-155 CE).
Still others felt the Book of Revelation was pseudonymous, that is was written by some anonymous writer with John's name appended to provide it with authority, a practice common with apocalyptic literature. Many of today's scholars attribute it to the Johannine theologians while some bible commentaries continue to assert it was written by John the apostle. Collins (1984), who provides a modern in-depth overview and analysis of this problem, however, maintains that "Sound judgment leads to the conclusion that it was written by a man named John who is otherwise unknown to us"..."
Dionysius, the Bishop of Alexandria and later to become the 14th Pope and
Patriarch of the
Church of Alexandria, was the first person to raise questions about John the Apostle being the actual author. Dionysius, who studied under
Origen, claimed John the Elder was the proper author of Revelation. The Alexandrian school of the ancient era taught scriptural symbolism and allegorical interpretation, thus rejecting a literal Millennium interpretation of Revelation. By questioning John the Apostle's authorship of the Revelation, their Amillennial view had greater credibility.
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| Rift in the Johannine Works |
The discovery of the
Dead Sea Scrolls sheds new light and marked a change in Johannine scholarship. Several of the hymns, presumably written by the
Essenes, contained the same sort of plays between opposites, such as light and dark; truth and lies, which are themes found within the
Gospels. There are many theologians that suggested that
John the Baptist himself belonged to an Essene community, and if John had been a previous disciple of the Baptist, he would have been affected by that teaching.
The only thing that can be justified when it comes to the mysterious biblical John is that he was banished to the remote and forsaken island of Patmos around the year 90-95 A.D. by the
Roman Emperor, Domitian, and is the rightful author of the Revelation. His exile to Patmos was a result of anti-Christian persecution under the Roman emperor, who was hoping to silence his voice about the prophetic teachings of Jesus.
Adela Yarbro Collins, a biblical scholar at Yale Divinity School, writes:
"Early tradition says that John was banished to Patmos by the Roman authorities. This tradition is credible because banishment was a common punishment used during the Imperial period for a number of offenses. Among such offenses were the practices of magic and astrology. Prophecy was viewed by the Romans as belonging to the same category, whether Pagan, Jewish, or Christian. Prophecy with political implications, like that expressed by John in the book of Revelation, would have been perceived as a threat to Roman political power and order. Three of the islands in the Sporades were places where political offenders were banished." - (Pliny Natural History 4.69-70; Tacitus Annals4.30)
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| Artist Depiction of Ancient Patmos |
Whether it was John the Apostle, John the Elder or John the Patmos Prisoner who actually wrote the apocalyptic text of Revelation, it will probably remain an obscure topic for the modern scholars to unravel.
For more information on this subject, please visit:
Dating the New Testament
Egyptian Origen of the Book of Revelation
The history of Halloween is steeped rich in pagan customs, traditions and rituals. While the roots of this holiday can be dated back to the 5th century BC and Celtic legends, the seed of the holiday was planted in Greek mythology through the portrayal of the goddesses invoking the Samhain. The festival of Samhain is a celebration of the end of the harvest season in Gaelic culture and was a time used by the ancient pagans to take stock of supplies and prepare for the harsh winter season. Samhain was seen as a liminal time, when spirits or fairies (the aos sí) could more easily cross the threshold into our world. Many scholars see the aos sí as remnants of the pagan gods and, in some cultures, nature spirits. At Samhain, it was believed that the aos sí needed to be appeased to ensure that the people, as well as their livestock, survived the harsh winter.
According to Irish mythology, Samhain was a time when a portal to the Otherworld opened, allowing spirits of the dead to enter into our world. Essentially, Samhain was a festival for the dead that involved great feasts and the drinking of alcohol. It is interesting to note that every tale associated with drunkenness is said to take place at Samhain. The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn states that the sídhe (fairy mounds or portals to the Otherworld) "were always open at Samhain".
Bonfires were commonplace among the celebration of Samhain. Most bonfires were lit on hilltops and involved certain rituals. However, by the modern era, the popular custom of bonfires was only practiced primarily in Scotland's Highland Line, on the Isle of Man, in north and mid Wales, and in parts of Ulster heavily settled by the Scots. Originally, certain types of wood was used to build the fire, but later records show that various kinds of flammable material were burnt. It is suggested by the scholars that the fires were a kind of imitative or sympathetic magic that mimicked the Sun, which aided the "powers of growth" and restrained the decay and darkness of Winter. Another theory suggests the fire served to symbolically "burn up and destroy all harmful influences". Certain accounts from the 18th and 19th centuries imply that the fires (as well as their ashes and smoke) were deemed to have protective and cleansing powers.
Samhain influenced the Roman Catholic holy day of All Saints (also known as All Hallows Day) which was introduced in 609 A.D. and was first celebrated on May 13. There is some controversy as to why November 1 officially became the date of this festival of saints. Some believe Louis the Pious switched the date to November 1 at the directive from Pope Gregory IV; Pseudo-Bede testified that All Saints Day was being celebrated in November long before the turn of the 8th century. James G. Frazer suggests that November 1 was chosen because it was the date of the Celtic festival of the dead (Samhain); however, Ronald Hutton argued that according to Óengus of Tallaght the Catholic Church in Ireland celebrated All Saints on April 20 and points out that the November 1 date was most likely a Germanic idea. Regardless, it is believed by many scholars that Samhain influenced All Hallows Eve and the two eventually morphed into the secular holiday known as Halloween.
Today, Halloween is mainly recognized by Western Christians, but is celebrated worldwide by many non-Christians as well. From trick or treating to eerie adult activities, Halloween - which is relatively new to America, becoming popular in the early 1900's - is commonly the most celebrated holiday, next to Christmas. This holiday, which received its beginnings from paganistic ideals, has been converted into a day filled with pranks, satisfying the sweet tooth and a fun-filled expectation of celebrating in disguise.
