The Hebrew Scriptures, referred to by Christians as the Old Testament, is called the TANAKH, which is the Hebrew acronym for the three different parts of the tome:
- TA - Torah, which is the first five books of the Old Testament
- NA - Nevi'im, which are the books of the prophets
- KH - Ketuvim, which are the remaining writings
The Torah, known as the Five Books of Moses [in Judaism] or the Pentateuch [in Christianity] were ancient writings attributed to Moses. The Torah is the totality of Jewish teaching, culture, and practice, whether derived from biblical texts or later rabbinic writings. The latter is often known as the Oral Torah. Common to all these meanings, Torah consists of the origin of Jewish mankind: their call into being by the Creator, their trials and tribulations, and their covenant with their Supreme God, which involves following a way of life embodied in a set of moral and religious obligations and civil laws. The Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash. Rabbinic tradition's understanding is that all of the teachings found in the Torah (both written and oral) were given by the Creator through the prophet Moses, some at Mount Sinai and others at the Tabernacle, and all the teachings were written down by Moses, which resulted in the Torah that exists today.
According to the Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, and was used as the blueprint for Creation. The majority of Biblical scholars believe that the written books were a product of the Babylonian captivity (c. 6th century BC), based on earlier written sources and oral traditions, and that it was completed with final revisions during the post-Exilic period (c. 5th century BC).
The Nevi'im is the second division of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh), between the Torah (instruction) and Ketuvim (writings). The Nevi'im are divided into two groups... the Former Prophets and the Latter Prophets.
- Former Prophets ... consists of the narrative books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings.
- Latter Prophets ... includes the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and the Twelve Minor Prophets (Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi).
In Judaism, Samuel and Kings are each counted as one book. In addition, twelve relatively short prophetic books are counted as one in a single collection called Trei Asar or "The Twelve Minor Prophets". The Jewish tradition thus counts a total of eight books in Nevi'im out of a total of 24 books in the entire Tanakh. In the Jewish liturgy, selections from the books of Nevi'im known as the Haftarah are read publicly in the synagogue after the reading of the Torah on each Shabbat, as well as on Jewish festivals and fast days. Unlike the Christian concept, the Book of Daniel is not considered a part of the Nevi'im.
Ketuvim is the third and final section of the Tanakh, after the book of instruction (Torah) and the books of the prophets (Nevi'im). This section is commonly referred to as the "Writings". Another name used for this section is 'Hagiographa'. The books of the Hagiographa are: Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.
Found among the Writings within the Hebrew scriptures, I and II Chronicles form one book, along with Ezra and Nehemiah which form a single unit entitled "Ezra–Nehemiah". Collectively, eleven books are included in the Ketuvim.
- The poetic books ... in Masoretic manuscripts, Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallel stich's in the verses, which are a function of their poetry. Collectively, these three books are known as Sifrei Emet (or "documents of truth" - an acronym of the titles of the three books in Hebrew; Emet, is the Hebrew word for "truth").
- The five scrolls (Hamesh Megillot) ... the five relatively short books of Song of Songs, Book of Ruth, the Book of Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Book of Esther are collectively known as the Hamesh Megillot (Five Megillot). These are the latest books collected and designated as "authoritative" in the Jewish canon. These scrolls are traditionally read over the course of the year in many Jewish communities.
The Talmud and Midrash
The Talmud is a collection of rabbinical writings that interpret, explain and apply the Torah scriptures. Many believe the Talmud was written between the second and fifth century BC, yet Orthodox Jews believe it was revealed to Moses, along with the Torah, and preserved orally until it was written down. The Talmud is thus known as the "Oral Torah," with the first five books of the Tanakh designated the "Written Torah."
The Midrash is a large body of rabbinical material derived primary from sermons (the Hebrew word for "sermon" is d'rash). The primary collections of Midrash were compiled between the fourth and sixth centuries, but the midrashic form continues to the present day. Reflecting traditional Jewish beliefs, Midrash contains both halakhic (legal) and aggadic (explanatory) matter, but it is best known for the latter. With its legends, parables, stories and creative insights, the Midrash tends to be more accessible to the average person than the Torah and Talmud.
- The Mishnah, which means "repetition" or "study"
- Gemara, which means "addition" or "completion."
As society changed, the Jews found that the Torah needed to be updated from its original agricultural emphasis. Those changes became part of the Mishnah. The Mishnah also includes a description of Jewish life during the period of the Second Temple. The Mishnah was authored in the third century B.C., and discusses laws and customs of virtually all areas of Judaism, ranging from holidays, dietary laws, Temple service, marriage and divorce, and civil law. The Mishnah is divided into six sections known as the sedarim:
- Zeraim (seeds) regarding the agricultural laws
- Moed (seasons) regarding the Sabbath and festivals
- Nashim (women) regarding marriage, divorce and family law
- Neziqin (damages) regarding civil and criminal laws
- Qodashim (holy things) regarding sacrificial cult and dietary laws)
- Tohorot (purifications) regarding ritual defilement and purification
The sedarim are divided into 63 treatises (essays). Also included in the Mishnah are a collection of wise sayings called the Pirkei Avot (Chapters of the Fathers), which are basically a compilation of the ethical teachings and maxims from Rabbinic Jewish tradition.
[Rabbi Yochanan] said to them: Go and see which is the best trait for a person to acquire. Said Rabbi Eliezer: A good eye. Said Rabbi Joshua: A good friend. Said Rabbi Yossei: A good neighbor. Said Rabbi Shimon: To see what is born [out of ones actions]. Said Rabbi Elazar: A good heart. Said He to them: I prefer the words of Elazar the son of Arach to yours, for his words include all of yours. ~ Pirkei Avot 10:1
After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 A.D., the Talmud defines the Jews' religious life more than the Torah. As noted earlier, Jewish tradition says Moses received two Torahs on Mount Sinai. The first is the written Torah and the second is an Oral Torah passed down from generation to generation. The Oral Torah finally was written down at the end of the second century. Biblical scholars and scribes in Babylon edited the written "Oral Torah" between 200 and 600 A.D. and that is now known as the Gemara, which means "completion" in Aramaic.
Although there is only one Mishnah, there are two Gemaras. The first Gemara called the Yerushalmi was created in Israel and the second called the Bavli was created in Babylon. The Gemara is always printed with the Mishnah. The Gemara adds to the Mishna and is a source of history and legend.
The Apocrypha
The books of the Apocrypha, while written by Jewish scribes, were regarded by Jewish sages as Sefarim hizonim (or extraneous books) and were not part of the Hebrew canon (officially accepted scriptures of the Tanakh). They are also known as "Deuterocanonical" writings, meaning a "second canon," which signifies that they are important but not on par with the official canon. Apocryphal books include:
1 Esdras ... is virtually identical to Ezra in the Hebrew bible (i.e. the Christian Old Testament), with one notable addition in the middle of chapter 4.
2 Esdras ... the author of 2 Esdras asks questions, like Job, in order to understand the meaning of suffering.
Tobias/Tobit... tells the story of a righteous Israelite, of the Tribe of Naphtali, named Tobit living in Nineveh after the deportation of the northern tribes of Israel to Assyria in 721 BCE under Sargon II.
Judith ... the narrative revolves around Judith, a daring and beautiful widow, who is upset with her Jewish countrymen for not trusting God to deliver them from their foreign conquerors.
Additions to Esther ... six additional chapters appear interspersed in the book of Esther, as it appears in the Hebrew Bible. Additional sections include an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai and another records prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and Esther.
Wisdom of Solomon ... this book is of genre of wisdom literature, similar to Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon.
Ecclesiasticus/Sirach ... a book of ethical teachings, composed from approximately 200 to 175 BC, and written by the Jewish scribe Shimon ben Yeshua ben Eliezer ben Sira of Jerusalem.
Baruch ... the book is a reflection of Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's well-known scribe, on the circumstances of Jewish exiles from Babylon, with meditations on the theology and history of Israel, discussions of wisdom, and a direct address to residents of Jerusalem and the Diaspora.
Epistle of Jeremiah ... this book is categorized with prophetical books like Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. In canonical literature, Baruch ben Neriah, was Jeremiah's scribe.
Prayer of Azariah ... the Prayer of Azariah is a passage that appears after Daniel 3:23 in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles.
Susanna ... was a Hebrew wife who was falsely accused. As she bathes in her garden, having sent her attendants away, two lustful elders secretly observe her. When she makes her way back to her house, they accost her, threatening to claim that she was meeting a young man in the garden unless she agrees to have sex with them.
Bel and the Dragon ... this narrative is incorporated as chapter 14 of the extended book of Daniel. The chapter is formed of three independent narratives, which place Daniel at the court of Cyrus, king of the Persians.
Prayer of Manasseh ... the Prayer of Manasseh is 15 verses of the prayer of king Manasseh of Judah, who is recorded in the Bible as one of the most idolatrous kings of Judah (2 Kings 21:1–18; 2 Chronicles 33:1–9).
Epistle to the Laodiceans ... is a lost letter of Paul the Apostle, the original existence of which is inferred from an instruction to the congregation in Colossae to forward their letter to the believing community in Laodicea.
1 Maccabees ... the setting of the book is about a century after the conquest of Judea by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, after Alexander's empire has been divided so that Judea was part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.
2 Maccabees ... this book does not attempt to provide a complete account of the events of the period, instead covering only the period from the high priest Onias III and King Seleucus IV (180 BC) to the defeat of Nicanor in 161 BC.
The Apocrypha
The books of the Apocrypha, while written by Jewish scribes, were regarded by Jewish sages as Sefarim hizonim (or extraneous books) and were not part of the Hebrew canon (officially accepted scriptures of the Tanakh). They are also known as "Deuterocanonical" writings, meaning a "second canon," which signifies that they are important but not on par with the official canon. Apocryphal books include:
1 Esdras ... is virtually identical to Ezra in the Hebrew bible (i.e. the Christian Old Testament), with one notable addition in the middle of chapter 4.
2 Esdras ... the author of 2 Esdras asks questions, like Job, in order to understand the meaning of suffering.
Tobias/Tobit... tells the story of a righteous Israelite, of the Tribe of Naphtali, named Tobit living in Nineveh after the deportation of the northern tribes of Israel to Assyria in 721 BCE under Sargon II.
Judith ... the narrative revolves around Judith, a daring and beautiful widow, who is upset with her Jewish countrymen for not trusting God to deliver them from their foreign conquerors.
Additions to Esther ... six additional chapters appear interspersed in the book of Esther, as it appears in the Hebrew Bible. Additional sections include an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai and another records prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and Esther.
Wisdom of Solomon ... this book is of genre of wisdom literature, similar to Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon.
Ecclesiasticus/Sirach ... a book of ethical teachings, composed from approximately 200 to 175 BC, and written by the Jewish scribe Shimon ben Yeshua ben Eliezer ben Sira of Jerusalem.
Baruch ... the book is a reflection of Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's well-known scribe, on the circumstances of Jewish exiles from Babylon, with meditations on the theology and history of Israel, discussions of wisdom, and a direct address to residents of Jerusalem and the Diaspora.
Epistle of Jeremiah ... this book is categorized with prophetical books like Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. In canonical literature, Baruch ben Neriah, was Jeremiah's scribe.
Prayer of Azariah ... the Prayer of Azariah is a passage that appears after Daniel 3:23 in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles.
Susanna ... was a Hebrew wife who was falsely accused. As she bathes in her garden, having sent her attendants away, two lustful elders secretly observe her. When she makes her way back to her house, they accost her, threatening to claim that she was meeting a young man in the garden unless she agrees to have sex with them.
Bel and the Dragon ... this narrative is incorporated as chapter 14 of the extended book of Daniel. The chapter is formed of three independent narratives, which place Daniel at the court of Cyrus, king of the Persians.
Prayer of Manasseh ... the Prayer of Manasseh is 15 verses of the prayer of king Manasseh of Judah, who is recorded in the Bible as one of the most idolatrous kings of Judah (2 Kings 21:1–18; 2 Chronicles 33:1–9).
Epistle to the Laodiceans ... is a lost letter of Paul the Apostle, the original existence of which is inferred from an instruction to the congregation in Colossae to forward their letter to the believing community in Laodicea.
1 Maccabees ... the setting of the book is about a century after the conquest of Judea by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, after Alexander's empire has been divided so that Judea was part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.
2 Maccabees ... this book does not attempt to provide a complete account of the events of the period, instead covering only the period from the high priest Onias III and King Seleucus IV (180 BC) to the defeat of Nicanor in 161 BC.
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Other Holy Books of Judaism
1. Megillah (Book of Esther) ... One of five megillahs included in the canon, Esther is the only one commonly read from a handwritten parchment scroll. It tells the dramatic Purim story, in which Queen Esther is the Divinely-placed heroine through whom the Jewish people who live in the sprawling Persian empire are saved from Haman’s evil scheme of annihilation.
2. Mishneh Torah ... Rabbi Moses Maimonides (known as Rambam) compiled what he called Mishneh Torah (“Torah Review”), a clearly organized encyclopedia of halachic rulings culled from all of rabbinic literature. This set the standard and formed a platform for many important rabbinic works to follow.
3. Shulchan Aruch (Code of Jewish Law) ... the Code of Jewish Law provides day-to-day instructions extracted from Maimonides’ code and other commentaries. It was written by Rabbi Yosef Caro (1488-1575), a Sephardic sage who lived in the holy city of Safed in the north of Israel. Shortly after it was published, Rabbi Moshe Isserles, an Ashkenazi rabbi in Krakow, Poland, added glosses in which he notes anytime Ashkenazic tradition differs from Rabbi Caro’s rulings. The unified text became accepted by all segments of the Jewish world; its very name has become synonymous with Jewish law.
3. Shulchan Aruch (Code of Jewish Law) ... the Code of Jewish Law provides day-to-day instructions extracted from Maimonides’ code and other commentaries. It was written by Rabbi Yosef Caro (1488-1575), a Sephardic sage who lived in the holy city of Safed in the north of Israel. Shortly after it was published, Rabbi Moshe Isserles, an Ashkenazi rabbi in Krakow, Poland, added glosses in which he notes anytime Ashkenazic tradition differs from Rabbi Caro’s rulings. The unified text became accepted by all segments of the Jewish world; its very name has become synonymous with Jewish law.
4. Siddur (Prayerbook) ... Jewish prayers were composed by the Anshe Knesset Hagedolah,“Men of the Great Assembly”— a panel of 120 prophets and sages comprising the ultimate religious authority at the onset of the Second Temple Era. In addition to the Amidah (“Silent Prayer”) and other compositions, the Jewish prayers include sections of Scripture, notably the Shema and a selection of Psalms.
5. Tanya ... The Tanya provides a roadmap to the soul and invaluable advice for maintaining joy, inspiration, and consistency throughout life’s challenges. Authored by Rabbi Schneur Zalman of Liadi.
6. Zohar ... One of the preeminent sages of the Mishnah was Rabbi Shimon ben Yochai, who flourished in Israel during the era of Roman oppression. He was also a master teacher of the Kabbalah, the “hidden” part of Jewish tradition. Many of his teachings, especially those from right before he passed away, were collected into the Zohar, an Aramaic text that typically fills three volumes and has been arranged to correspond to the weekly Torah portions.
"And it will be, when he sits upon his royal throne, that he shall write for himself two copies of this Torah on a scroll from [that Torah which is] before the Levitic kohanim: And it shall be with him, and he shall read it all the days of his life, so that he may learn to fear the Lord, his God, to keep all the words of this Torah and these statutes, to perform them:" Dueteronomy 17:18-19יחוְהָיָ֣ה כְשִׁבְתּ֔וֹ עַ֖ל כִּסֵּ֣א מַמְלַכְתּ֑וֹ וְכָ֨תַב ל֜וֹ אֶת־מִשְׁנֵ֨ה הַתּוֹרָ֤ה הַזֹּאת֙ עַל־סֵ֔פֶר מִלִּפְנֵ֖י הַכֹּֽהֲנִ֥ים הַֽלְוִיִּֽם: יטוְהָֽיְתָ֣ה עִמּ֔וֹ וְקָ֥רָא ב֖וֹ כָּל־יְמֵ֣י חַיָּ֑יו לְמַ֣עַן יִלְמַ֗ד לְיִרְאָה֙ אֶת־יְהֹוָ֣ה אֱלֹהָ֔יו לִ֠שְׁמֹ֠ר אֶת־כָּל־דִּבְרֵ֞י הַתּוֹרָ֥ה הַזֹּ֛את וְאֶת־הַֽחֻקִּ֥ים הָאֵ֖לֶּה לַֽעֲשׂתָֽם:" ~ Devarim 17:18-19
