The Bible
The Bible is used by every Christian denomination in the world and considered to be "the word of God" by the Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox groups. The primary sacred text of Christianity is the [Holy] Bible (from Latin biblia, "books"), which consists of the Old Testament and New Testament. Catholic and Orthodox Christians also include the Apocrypha among their holy books. Though all Christians interpret the Bible differently, they all believe that it is a book that has been inspired by God, therefore making it the most sacred book of Christianity.
The Old Testament
The Bible contains 66 books in Protestant literature and 82 books and/or additions in Catholicism, as well as their Orthodox counterpart. The Old Testament (also known as the Tanakh in Judaism) contains 39 books. Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections:
- Books of Moses: The first five books or Pentateuch (corresponds to the Jewish Torah). The first five books of the Bible include: Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus and Deuteronomy, which were written by Moses.
- History: The history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon.
- Poetry and Wisdom: The poetic and "Wisdom books" dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world.
- The Prophets: The books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God, as well as a predicting a Savior and an apocalypse to occur at the end of mankind's reign on Earth .
The Old Testament is viewed as foundational, authoritative, and relevant, and is read and cherished by Christians all around the world. But, the Christians also regard the Old Testament as having been superseded and fulfilled by the New Testament (covenant) God has made with the modern Church.
The New Testament
The New Testament contains 27 books accepted by all Christian denominations. It is a collection of Christian writings that includes biographies of Jesus Christ and the apostles, letters to new churches, and an apocalyptic work. The Christians divide the New Testament into four categories:
- Biography: Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John - which tell the life story of Jesus. The first three Gospels are similar in content and structure and are also called the "Synoptic Gospels".
- History: Acts or Acts of the Apostles - which recounts the early history of Christianity when the Apostles began to preach the Gospel in the 1st century A.D.
- Epistles: Letters written by Paul and other authors to various people and tribes in the region. The epistles are included in Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Thessalonians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John and Jude.
- Prophecy: The Book of Revelation [to John] - which is the only New Testament book to focus entirely on apocalyptical prophecy.
The names given to these two parts of the Bible are significant. The word testament means "covenant," so the notion of old and new testaments reflects the modern Christian perspective that the Church is the successor to Israel as God's chosen people.
The Apocrypha
The books of the Apocrypha, while written by Jewish scribes, were regarded by Jewish sages as Sefarim hizonim (or extraneous books) and were not part of the Hebrew canon (officially accepted scriptures of the Tanakh). They are also known as "Deuterocanonical" books, meaning a "second canon," which signifies that they are important but not on par with the official canon. The Apocrypha was included in all Christian Bibles until the Reformation started in 1517 A.D. Today, only the Catholic Church recognizes these sacred texts among their holy books. The most widely recognized Apocryphal books include:
- Tobias/Tobit... tells the story of a righteous Israelite, of the Tribe of Naphtali, named Tobit living in Nineveh after the deportation of the northern tribes of Israel to Assyria in 721 BCE under Sargon II.
- Additions to Esther ... six additional chapters appear interspersed in the book of Esther, as it appears in the Hebrew Bible. Additional sections include an opening prologue that describes a dream had by Mordecai and another records prayers for God's intervention offered by Mordecai and Esther.
- Wisdom of Solomon ... this book is of genre of wisdom literature, similar to Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon.
- Prayer of Manasseh ... the Prayer of Manasseh is 15 verses of the prayer of King Manasseh of Judah, who is recorded in the Bible as one of the most idolatrous kings of Judah (2 Kings 21:1–18; 2 Chronicles 33:1–9).
- Bel and the Dragon ... this narrative is incorporated as chapter 14 of the extended book of Daniel. The chapter is formed of three independent narratives, which place Daniel at the court of Cyrus, king of the Persians.
- Epistle of Jeremiah ... this book is categorized with prophetical books like Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. In canonical literature, Baruch ben Neriah, was Jeremiah's scribe.
- 1 Esdras ... is virtually identical to Ezra in the Hebrew bible (i.e. the Christian Old Testament), with one notable addition in the middle of chapter 4.
- 2 Esdras ... the author of 2 Esdras asks questions, like Job, in order to understand the meaning of suffering.
- Baruch ... the book is a reflection of Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's well-known scribe, on the circumstances of Jewish exiles from Babylon, with meditations on the theology and history of Israel, discussions of wisdom, and a direct address to residents of Jerusalem and the Diaspora.
- Ecclesiasticus/Sirach ... a book of ethical teachings, composed from approximately 200 to 175 BC, and written by the Jewish scribe Shimon ben Yeshua of Jerusalem.
- Judith ... the narrative revolves around Judith, a daring and beautiful widow, who is upset with her Jewish countrymen for not trusting God to deliver them from their foreign conquerors.
- 1 Maccabees ... the setting of the book is about a century after the conquest of Judea by the Greeks under Alexander the Great, after Alexander's empire has been divided so that Judea was part of the Greek Seleucid Empire.
- 2 Maccabees ... this book does not attempt to provide a complete account of the events of the period, instead covering only the period from the high priest Onias III and King Seleucus IV (180 BC) to the defeat of Nicanor in 161 BC.
Other Apocryphal Books
- Prayer of Azariah ... the Prayer of Azariah is a passage that appears after Daniel 3:23 in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles.
- Susanna ... was a Hebrew wife who was falsely accused. As she bathes in her garden, having sent her attendants away, two lustful elders secretly observe her. When she makes her way back to her house, they accost her, threatening to claim that she was meeting a young man in the garden unless she agrees to have sex with them.
- Epistle to the Laodiceans ... is a lost letter of Paul the Apostle, the original existence of which is inferred from an instruction to the congregation in Colossae to forward their letter to the believing community in Laodicea.
Catholic and Orthodox Bibles include the Apocrypha, while Protestant Bibles do not. The Apocrypha (from Greek, "hidden books") is a group of 13 Jewish books written between the Old Testament and the New Testament. Following the pattern of the Greek version of the Old Testament (the Septuagint), the Apocrypha was included in all Christian Bibles until Martin Luther led the Reformation during the 16th century. The reformers rejected the Apocrypha because it was sometimes used as a basis for certain Catholic doctrines and because the Jews have never included it in their biblical canon.
The Gnostic Gospels
Another important set of early Christian writings, which has been rejected by mainstream Christians since almost the beginning, is the Gnostic scriptures. Gnosticism was an early form of Christianity that early church fathers and church councils determined to be heretical. Sacred texts of the Gnostic Christians include sayings of Jesus, mystical teachings, apocalyptic works, and accounts of the apostles. Among early Jewish and Christian sects, these various groups emphasized personal spiritual knowledge (gnosis) above the orthodox teachings, traditions, and authority of the church during the 1st and 2nd century A.D. Some of them may date to as early as the New Testament writings. A partial list of Gnostic Gospels include:
Works preserved by the Church:
- Acts of Thomas
- The Acts of John
- Books of Jeu (also known as The Gnosis of the Invisible God)
- The Gnosis of the Light or The Untitled Apocalypse
- Pistis Sophia: Books of the Savior
- Apocryphon of John
- Epitome of the Acts of Peter
- The Wisdom of Jesus Christ
Unknown origin:
- The Secret Gospel of Mark
- The Hermetica
For centuries, most scholarly knowledge of Gnosticism was limited to the anti-heretical writings of orthodox Christian figures such as Irenaeus of Lyons and Hippolytus of Rome. There was a renewed interest in Gnosticism after the 1945 discovery of Egypt's Nag Hammadi library, a collection of rare early Christian and Gnostic texts. While the Gnostic Gospels are not overly recognized by the mainstream modern Christian Church, these sacred texts were mentioned critically in Patristic writings of the early Christian Church fathers.
The Didache or Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles
The Didache is a brief anonymous early Christian treatise written in Koine Greek, dated by modern scholars to the first century. Other biblical historians date the literature to the second century. This brief work is shorter than Jesus' "Sermon on the Mount". The first line of this treatise is "The teaching of the Lord to the Gentiles (or Nations) by the twelve apostles". The ancient text, parts of which constitute the oldest extant written catechism, has three main sections:
- Dealing with Christian ethics: The opening chapter alludes to what the entire book represents; moral instructions and guidelines. "There are two ways: one of life and one of death; and the difference between the two ways is great." (Didache 1:1). The Lord's Prayer is also included in full.
- Sacred rituals, such as baptism and the Eucharist: Baptism is by immersion, or by affusion if immersion is not practical. Fasting is ordered for Wednesdays and Fridays. Two primitive Eucharistic prayers are given.
- Church organization: During the 1st century A.D., Church organization was at an early stage of development. Itinerant apostles and prophets are important, serving as "chief priests" and possibly celebrating the Eucharist. Meanwhile, local bishops and deacons also have authority and seem to be taking the place of the itinerant ministry.
The majority of scholars consider the Didache to be the first example of the genre of Church Orders. The Didache reveals how Jewish Christians saw themselves and how they adapted their practice for Gentile Christians. This ancient text is similar to the Gospel of Matthew, perhaps because both texts originated in similar communities. The archaic work was considered by some Church Fathers to be a part of the New Testament, while being rejected by others as spurious or non-canonical. In the end, it was not accepted into the New Testament canon. However, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church's "broader canon" includes the Didascalia Apostolorum, a written content which draws on the Didache.
The Didache, or Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles, has long been known to exist due to quotes and references found in the writings of church fathers including Pseudo-Barnabas, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, the Apostolic Constitutions, Eusebius of Caesarea and Athanasius of Alexandria. The Didache concludes with warnings to be vigilant in light of Christ's immanent second coming.
The Book of Mormon
The Book of Mormon is a sacred tome used by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). According to their theology, the book contains writings of ancient prophets who lived on the American continent from approximately 2200 BC to 421 AD. The book was first published in March 1830 by Joseph Smith as The Book of Mormon: An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates Taken from the Plates of Nephi. Overall, there are 15 books contained within the Book of Mormon, which lists 41 prophets throughout its holy scriptures.
The Book of Mormon has a number of doctrinal discussions on subjects, such as:
- Eschatology - Most Mormons believe in a Second Coming but not a rapture of the church. Many believe that the bulk of end times prophecies about chaos and rampant evil will be fulfilled in the US, and that the faithful will build the New Jerusalem [in Missouri] before the Lord returns to live there among them.
- The fall of Adam and Eve - According to Mormon beliefs the fall of man was a necessary part of God’s plan for the happiness of his children (Alma 42:8; Moses 6:48; 2 Nephi 2:23; 2:25; 1 Nephi 17:36). Understanding why the fall was necessary begins by understanding the premortal life. From there the necessity of the fall becomes apparent.
- The nature of the Christian atonement - The LDS Church does not view the atonement of Christ in the biblical and historical Christian manner. Instead of the atonement occurring on the cross at Calvary, Mormonism teaches the atonement occurred fundamentally in the Garden of Gethsemane when Jesus shed His blood.
- Redemption from physical and spiritual death - The Mormon scriptures speak of two kinds of death: physical and spiritual. Physical death is the separation of the spirit from the body, while spiritual death is the separation of humankind from the presence of God.
- The organization of the latter day church - Jesus Christ is the head of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Under His direction, General Authorities, General Officers, and local leaders lead and teach Church members throughout the world.
The Mormon faith have various scriptural canons consisting of the Bible (both Old and New Testaments), the Book of Mormon, and a collection of revelations and writings by Joseph Smith known as the Doctrine and Covenants and Pearl of Great Price. However, the pivotal event in the Book of Mormon is an appearance of Jesus Christ in the Americas shortly after his resurrection. This could possibly explain the moniker, "Another Testament of Jesus Christ" that has been tacked on to The Book of Mormon.